### PSI Phenomena PSI (Ψ) phenomena refer to experiences and abilities that appear to defy conventional scientific explanation. The term was introduced in the 1940s by biologist Bertold P. Wiesner and psychologist Robert Thouless, who chose the Greek letter Ψ (psi) as it is the initial letter of "psyche" in Greek, connecting it to the study of the mind and consciousness. PSI encompasses alleged abilities such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis. During the 1960s and 1970s, PSI phenomena were subject to intense debate. Proponents argued these abilities represented unexplained aspects of human consciousness, while skeptics contended they could be explained through conventional means like trickery or flawed experiments. This controversy challenged the boundaries between mainstream science and fringe beliefs, sparking discussions about scientific evidence and the limits of human perception. Your pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of your brain below your hypothalamus.  Cargo cults were real phenomena that emerged in Melanesian islands during and after World War II. When Allied forces established bases on these islands, the local people witnessed the arrival of vast amounts of goods ("cargo") by aircraft. After the war ended and the military left, some islanders attempted to attract more cargo by building crude imitation airstrips, aircraft, and radio equipment, and performing rituals that mimicked the behaviors they had observed of military personnel. Notable examples include: - The John Frum movement on Tanna Island, Vanuatu - The Prince Philip Movement on Tanna Island, which revered Prince Philip as a divine being - Cargo cults in Papua New Guinea, such as the Paliau Movement ### Millikan's oil drop experiment Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment (1909) measured the charge of an electron by observing the motion of electrically charged oil droplets in an electric field. The droplets' behavior allowed Millikan to calculate the fundamental unit of electric charge. Here is a diagram of Millikan’s experimental setup: 
 - Millikan's original measurement: $1.592 \times 10^{-19} \ coulomb$ - Currently accepted value: $1.60217663 \times 10^{-19} \ coulomb$ Below you will find a plot of the measurements of the electron charge over time, where you can see that Feynman was indeed correct in his observation.  Richard Feynman was at Cornell University from 1945 to 1950 as an associate professor. During his time there, he made significant contributions to the field of quantum electrodynamics, which later earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 "nothing really worked": These are the type of comments that always leave me disappointed with Feynman. It's *not* easy to check whether medical interventions work. That why we have RCTs and regulatory agencies. (It's also why we have a multi-billion-dollar "supplements" industry.) Uri Geller, born in 1946 in Tel Aviv, is an Israeli-British performer who rose to fame in the 1970s for his claimed psychic abilities, most notably his alleged power to bend spoons with his mind. Through television appearances and live performances, Geller captivated audiences with feats such as stopping watches and moving compass needles, sparking intense debate among scientists, skeptics, and believers in the paranormal. While Geller insisted his abilities were genuine, many skeptics, including stage magicians, argued that his performances could be replicated using simple conjuring tricks. The controversy surrounding Geller's claims brought discussions about scientific evidence, the psychology of belief, and the boundaries between science and pseudoscience into the public spotlight. [Here](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD7OgAdCObs) is an example of one of Uri Geller’s TV appearances where he goes to the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson for one of his demonstrations.  Esalen Institute, founded in 1962 by two Stanford graduates (Michael Murphy and Dick Price) in Big Sur, California, was a pivotal center of the human potential movement and counterculture during the 1960s and 1970s when Feynman visited. The institute was renowned for its interdisciplinary approach, bringing together experts from psychology, philosophy, religion, and science to explore human consciousness and potential. Esalen offered workshops on a wide range of topics, from meditation and yoga to encounter groups and gestalt therapy, many of which were considered fringe or revolutionary at the time. Esalen's unique intellectual environment attracted influential thinkers like Abraham Maslow, Aldous Huxley, and Alan Watts. It emphasized mind-body integration and was involved in early psychedelic research before such substances were prohibited.  *Aerial view of Esalen buildings and hot springs* Feynman conducted several personal experiments with altered states of consciousness, including hallucinations. These experiences, documented in "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!", showcase his approach to understanding unconventional phenomena. Here’s Feynman’s description of his floatation tank experiences: > I must have gone about a dozen times, each time spending about two and a half hours in the tank. The first time I didn't get any hallucinations, but after I had been in the tank, the Lillys introduced me to a man billed as a medical doctor, who told me about a drug called ketamine, which was used as an anesthetic. I've always been interested in questions related to what happens when you go to sleep, or what happens when you get conked out, so they showed me the papers that came with the medicine and gave me one tenth of the normal dose. > I got this strange kind of feeling which I've never been able to figure out whenever I tried to characterize what the effect was. For instance, the drug had quite an effect on my vision; I felt I couldn't see clearly. But when I'd look hard at something, it would be OK. > The Lillys were very interesting people; I enjoyed them very, very much.... I realized that other people had found the sense-deprivation tank somewhat frightening, but to me it was a pretty interesting invention. […] > One thing that often happened was that as the hallucination was coming on, what you might describe as "garbage" would come: there were simply chaotic images - complete, random junk. I tried to remember some of the items of the junk in order to be able to characterize it again, but it was particularly difficult to remember. I think I was getting close to the kind of thing that happens when you begin to fall asleep: There are apparent logical connections, but when you try to remember what made you think of what you're thinking about, you can't remember. As a matter of fact, you soon forget what it is that you're trying to remember. ### ESP - Extrasensory Perception ESP, or Extrasensory Perception, refers to purported abilities to acquire information through means other than known physical senses, including telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. In 1970s, ESP occupied a unique position in both scientific and popular spheres. ESP research, which had gained prominence with J.B. Rhine's work at Duke University in the 1930s, was being conducted at several universities. The Cold War climate had even spurred interest in exploring ESP for potential espionage applications. Despite this academic attention, many scientists, including Feynman, remained highly skeptical of ESP claims. Critics pointed to methodological flaws in ESP experiments and the persistent lack of reproducible results. The scientific community generally viewed ESP as pseudoscience. At the same time, ESP enjoyed considerable popularity in media and culture. Self-proclaimed psychics gained celebrity status, and ESP featured prominently in books, movies, and TV shows of the era. Feynman uses ESP as a prime example of what he terms "cargo cult science" - research that mimics the outward appearance of scientific methodology but lacks true scientific integrity. He critiques the field for its poor experimental controls and tendency to explain away negative results, using it to illustrate broader points about the importance of scientific rigor and the dangers of self-deception in research.